As the chief source of Islamic doctrine and practice, the Quran is the main foundation of the shari'ah, the sacred law of Islam, which covers all aspects of the public and private, social and economic, religious and political lives of all Muslims. Most important of all, he introduced Arabic as the language of administration, replacing Greek and Pahlavi. The Middle East is a colonial invention "serving the West's Eurocentric purpose" to extend its sphere of influence through "civilising" the Orient (Bilgin 2004: 26). The pilgrims may also, at this point, remove the ihram dress and bathe. Immigration nevertheless continued and in the 1930s - with the rise of Adolf Hitler - and after World War II, Jewish immigration increased still further. Muhammad's followers were harassed, abused, and even tortured. The revelations he received at this time and those he did so later are all incorporated in the Quran, the Scripture of Islam. This expansion of commercial activity led to other developments too. The Mamluks had been recruited by the Ayyubids and then, like the Turkish mercenaries of the 'Abbasid caliphs, had usurped power from their enfeebled masters. It is a rigorous fast, but its object is not mere abstinence and deprivation; it is, rather, the subjection of the passions and the purification of one's being so that the soul is brought nearer to God. ", Meanwhile, outside Granada, the Christian kings waited. In the meantime, the Mongols, like so many of the peoples who had come into contact with Islam, had begun to embrace it. the pilgrims pour out of Mecca to Mina, where, as the Prophet did, they meditate overnight. This new way of writing numbers was economical but not flawless. 'Uthman's relatives - in particular Mu'awiyah, the powerful governor of Syria, where 'Ali's election had not been recognized - believed 'Ali's caliphate was invalid because his election had been supported by those responsible for 'Uthman's unavenged death. The Islamic empire began to expand beyond the Arabian Peninsula after the death of the prophet and founder of Islam, Mohammed, in 632 CE. According to the chronicles of the day, the city had 700 mosques, some 60,000 palaces, and 70 libraries - one reportedly housing 500,000 manuscripts and employing a staff of researchers, illuminators, and book binders. The Ottoman Turks have conquered and maintain effective control over diverse peoples in a vast empire stretching from Persia almost to the gates of Vienna and along the north coast of Africa to Algiers. Hoping to cut Britain's lines to India and cripple its maritime and economic power, Napoleon crushed the Mamluks (who governed Egypt under Ottoman suzerainty) and briefly occupied the country. It's all color coded. During this period scribes began the modification of the original thick and heavy kufic script into the form employed today for decorative purposes, as well as developing a number of new scripts derived from the more cursive naskhi. The most important of the Baghdad hospitals was that established in 982 (372 H) by the ruler `Adud al-Dawlah. This is not to say that the Muslims were not brave and that the conviction that they were doing Allah's will was not significant: it clearly was. This is a great article i ever seen Ma.Shaa.Allah. With great difficulty, the task was carried out and the first complete manuscript compiled from "bits of parchment, thin white stones - ostracae - leafless palm branches, and the memories of men." For countless millions, consequently, it has been the single most important force in guiding their religious, social, and cultural lives. We feature each theme with a beautiful image. Adopting the title Amir al-Muminin, "Commander of the Believers," 'Umar extended Islam's temporal rule over Syria, Egypt, Iraq, and Persia in what from a purely military standpoint were astonishing victories. Henceforth, the organizational principle of the community was not to be mere blood kinship, but the greater brotherhood of all Muslims. By the eleventh century, however, a small pocket of Christian resistance had begun to grow, and under Alfonso VI Christian forces retook Toledo. In Egypt, the first hospital was built in the southwestern quarter . Although individual Turkish generals had already gained considerable, and at times decisive, power in Mesopotamia and Egypt during the tenth and eleventh centuries, the coming of the Seljuks signaled the first large-scale penetration of the Turkish elements into the Middle East. The Ottoman Empire reached its peak in size and splendor under the sultan called Suleiman the Magnificent, who ruled from 1520 to 1566 and was known to the Turks as Suleiman the Law-Giver. If you see a green icon like this (), it means you're already logged in! Thank you for sharing. }. Photo: The shrine of the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, built in an area revered by Muslims, Christians and Jews alike covers the rock from which Muhammad is believed to have ascended to heaven with the Angel Gabriel. Again, however, the effects were temporary and the empire continued to lose territory through rebellion or foreign intervention. Systematized in the second and third centuries of the Muslim era (the eighth and ninth centuries A.D.), the shari'ah later developed into four major schools of jurisprudence: the Hanafi School, founded by Abu Hanifah; the Maliki School, founded by Malik ibn Anas; the Shafi'i School, founded by Muhammad al-Shafi'i; and the Hanbali School founded by Ahmad ibn Hanbal. Muslims believe that their sacred text, the Quran, is the absolute word of God as it was revealed to the prophet Muhammad. 'Uthman also, through his cousin Mu'awiyah ibn Abi Sufyan, the governor of Syria, established an Arab navy which fought a series of important engagements with the Byzantines. The verses of the Quran stress God's uniqueness, warn those who deny it of impending punishment, and proclaim His unbounded compassion to those who submit to His will. On the east coast of Africa, and based upon its proximity to the Arabian Peninsula, Arabs and Africans quickly became co-religionists . But in Mecca the persecution worsened. Bayt al-Hikmah was a remarkable assemblage of scholar-translators who undertook a Herculean task: to translate into Arabic all of what had survived of the philosophical and scientific tradition of the ancient world and incorporate it into the conceptual framework of Islam. Photo: Another basmalah in ornamental thuluth script is written in the shape of an oval. Another turning point was the invasion of Egypt in 1798 by Napoleon Bonaparte. The most imposing of the many fortresses built by the Crusaders the elegant Krak des Chevaliers in Syria (top) held out against the Muslims for over a century and a half. Sharia law has wide-reaching influences on business within the region which need to be appreciated. Confined to the coast, they ruled small areas until their final defeat at the hands of the Egyptian Mamluks at the end of the thirteenth century. After the battle of Siffin, 'Ali - whose chief strength was in Iraq, with his capital at Kufa - began to lose the support of many of his more uncompromising followers and in 661 he was murdered by a former supporter. For one thing, it was a tacit recognition of the end of an era. So renowned were Ottoman calligraphers, in fact, that a popular saying was that "The Quran was revealed in Mecca, recited in Egypt, and written in Istanbul." The mandates were inconsistent with British promises to the Arabs and, furthermore, contrary to the recommendations of President Wilson's King-Crane Commission, a group sent to the Middle East in 1919 specifically to ascertain the wishes of the Arab peoples. Islam had profound effects on all aspects of daily life and society but these did vary over time and place. To the west, they took North Africa, in a continuation of the campaign led by 'Uqbah ibn Nafi' who founded the city of Kairouan - in what is now Tunisia - and from there rode all the way to the shores of the Atlantic Ocean. Sectarian conflict is becoming entrenched in a growing number of Muslim countries and is threatening to fracture Iraq and Syria. In some ways the 'Abbasids were more fortunate than the Umayyads. But as more revelations enjoined him to proclaim the oneness of God universally, his following grew, at first among the poor and the slaves, but later also among the most prominent men of Mecca. It is really good article for all people whether they are Muslims or Non Muslims. In the early days of Islam, the extension of Islamic rule had been based on an uncomplicated desire to spread the Word of God. A caliph such as Umar seems to have regarded himself, first and foremost, as the leader of the Arabs, and their monotheistic creed as the religious component of their new political identity. Advertisement. Such rights were also given to some administrators or governors in place of, or in addition to, salaries, thus insuring a regular collection of revenues and reducing record keeping. But he also stood firm when, in the wake of the Prophet's death, some tribes renounced Islam; in what was a major accomplishment, Abu Bakr swiftly disciplined them. Many also make the sa'y or running, a reenactment of a frantic search for water by Hagar when she and Abraham's son Ishmael were stranded in the valley of Mecca until the Angel Gabriel led them to water in the Well of Zamzam. Shortly afterwards the Muslim army attacked the Sassanid Empire in Iraq, gaining a massive victory in 637 at the Battle of Qadasiya, and gradually conquering more and more of Iraq over the next dozen years. This page has been archived and is no longer updated. It is largely owing to the existence of these traditional methods of recitation that the text of the Quran was preserved without error. The Arabic term islm, literally "surrender," illuminates the fundamental religious idea of Islamthat the believer (called a Muslim, from the active particle of islm) accepts surrender to the will of Allah (in Arabic, Allh: God). Persia and Byzantium faced the challenge of a new faith that had a very active political component. One reason is that the cursive nature of the Arabic script and certain of its other peculiarities made its adaptation to printing difficult and delayed the introduction of the printing press, so that the Arab world continued for some centuries after the time of Gutenberg to rely on handwriting for the production of books (especially the Quran) and of legal and other documents. JazakAllah. Christians and Muslims discuss the different traditions of mission, conversion and the expansion of religions worldwide. The fact that the prophet Muhammad had been a merchant made the role of merchants in Islamic society even more important, as there was now increased respect for the position. While the world's population is projected to grow 32% in the coming decades, the number of Muslims is expected to increase by 70% - from 1.8 billion in 2015 to nearly 3 billion in 2060. The Crusader castle at Sidon in Lebanon (below) was abandoned after the final defeat of the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem. Another Semitic script which was in use at about the same time and which is found on inscriptions in southern Arabia is the origin of the alphabet now used for Amharic, the official language of Ethiopia. What the Revolution did, however, was to give voice to Islamic activism as a potential force in governance. Realizing that the original message from God might be inadvertently distorted by textual variants, he appointed a committee to collect the canonical verses and destroy the variant recensions. And even if there be one hair binding me to my fellowmen, I do not let it break: when they pull I loosen, and if they loosen I pull. Tamerlane died on his way to conquer China, and his empire melted away. In the sixteenth century, for example, the Ottoman Empire voluntarily granted a series of concessions called the "Capitulations" to European powers - concessions which gave the Europeans decided advantages in foreign trade in the empire. The amount varied with the importance of the individual noble or administrator, and he could use it as he saw fit. Worse than that, . And if it was a new and upstart faith, its administration by simple and honest men was preferable to the corruption and persecution that were the norm in more civilized empires George F. Nafziger, Mark W. Walton, Islam at War: A History, 2003. This pattern was repeated throughout the Byzantine Empire. Western forms have been adapted as much as they have been adopted, and healthy hybrid forms and concepts abound. The important office of wazir or vizier, chief counselor, may well have developed from Sassanid models. The Black Death (1347 - 1351 CE) was the first and greatest of the many plague outbreaks of the second plague pandemic in the Middle East (1347 CE to 1877 CE). Umar found himself the ruler of a large unified state, with an organised army, and he used this as a tool to spread Islam further in the Middle East. The opinions expressed herein, through this post or comments, contain positions and viewpoints that are not necessarily those of IslamiCity. This policy was to prove successful everywhere. This trade was vital; in the central lands of the 'Abbasid empire natural resources such as metals and wood were scarce, and increases in urban populations had outstripped the capacity of the agricultural system to support them. Since all government business was by now transacted in Arabic, manuals of correct usage were written for the instruction of non-Arabic speakers who had found government employment. The Holy Quran is the most sacred book of Allah revealed on Prophet Muhammad (SAW), for the upliftment guidance and enriched messages to the humanity. The Muslim legacy included advances in technology too. A third important factor was the establishment in Baghdad of a paper mill. The Ottoman state was born on the frontier between Islam and the Byzantine Empire. 'Uthman was accused of favoritism to members of his family - the clan of Umayyah. Although the Umayyads favored their own region of Syria, their rule was not without accomplishments. Geographical unity, however, was but one factor. Islam, founded in seventh-century Arabia by the prophet Muhammad, altered the Middle East economically. By introducing modern Western ideas these fostered the growth of Arab nationalism, contributed to the revival of Arabic literature, and provided a powerful impulse toward modernization. Nizam-al-Mulk, furthermore, was a devout and orthodox Muslim who established a system of madrasahs or theological seminaries (called nizamiyah after the first element of his name) to provide students with free education in the religious sciences of Islam, as well as in the most advanced scientific and philosophical thought of the time. As an important trading post with vibrant economic activity, the city of Mecca, in the Arabian Peninsula, was a valuable setting for Islam, providing important context for Islam's relationship to trade. The surahs revealed at Medina are longer, often deal in detail with specific legal, social, or political situations, and sometimes can only be properly understood with a full knowledge of the circumstances in which they were revealed All the surahs are divided into ayahs or verses and, for purposes of pedagogy and recitation, the Quran as a whole is divided into thirty parts, which in turn are divided into short divisions of nearly equal length, to facilitate study and memorization. Secondly, the discipline displayed by the Muslims brought home to the Meccans, perhaps for the first time, the abilities of the man they had driven from their city. To obtain them, of course, the Muslims had to export too, often using the imports from one region as exports to another: pearls from the Gulf, livestock from the Arabian Peninsula (particularly Arabian horses and camels), and - one of the chief products - cloth. During a trip to Byzantium in search of manuscripts, Muhammad ibn Musa happened to meet Thabit ibn Qurrah, then a money changer but also a scholar in Syriac, Greek, and Arabic. Because of the increasingly disruptive part played by the Janissaries, the empire, in a series of eighteenth-century wars, slowly lost territory. At this point, it must be noted that by the time Muhammad was born in Mecca (570 AD,) Persia and Byzantium had exhausted their resources, having fought . The vizier was much more than an advisor; indeed, when the caliph was weak, a capable vizier became the most powerful man in the empire. It was under the 'Abbasids, however, that calligraphy first began to be systematized. In 632, just three years later, he was suddenly taken ill and on June 8 of that year, with his third wife 'Aishah in attendance, the Messenger of God "died with the heat of noon.". Islamic architecture encompasses a wide range of both secular and religious styles from the early history of Islam to the present day. Muslims, consider the Quran (sometimes spelled "Koran") to be the Word of God as transmitted by the Angel Gabriel, in the Arabic language, through the Prophet Muhammad. As the script in which the Quran was first written down indicated only the consonantal skeleton of the words, oral recitation was an essential element in the transmission of the text. Dutch, British, and French frigates and merchantmen followed and began establishing trading outposts along the shores of the Indian Ocean, eventually undercutting both Venetian shipping and the Mediterranean trade on which the Middle East had thrived for millennia. My grandpa was a Kurdish communist activist in Iran and is an atheist. Members of the two sects have co-existed for centuries and share many fundamental beliefs and practices. He astounded them still further when he set their fears at rest by negotiating a generous treaty in which he told them: In the name of God you have complete security for your churches which shall not be occupied by the Muslims or destroyed. On the death of Mahmud, his sons continued his efforts with a series of reforms called the tanzimat. The Zionist claim to Palestine was mainly based on the fact that there had been periods of Hebrew rule in Canaan and the land west of the Jordan River between 1300 B.C. The path of those whom Thou hast favored; not the path of those who earn Thine anger nor of those who go astray. As societies become larger and more complex, its people become more likely to join monotheistic religions. Thirdly, one of the allied tribes which had pledged support to the Muslims in the Battle of Badr, but had then proved lukewarm when the fighting started, was expelled from Medina one month after the battle. Arabic became and has remained the national language - the mother tongue - of North Africa and all the Arab countries of the Middle East. At the dawn of the fourteenth century, Ghazan Khan Mahmud officially adopted Islam as the religion of the state, and for a time peace descended on the eastern portion of the Mongol empire. The Islam to spread because of the forgiveness of Muhammad that he help the people. By the thirteenth century their once extensive domains were reduced to a few scattered kingdoms deep in the mountains of Andalusia - where, for some two hundred years longer, they would not only survive but flourish. The contents of the Quran differ in substance and arrangement from the Old and New Testaments. On January 8, the Center for Middle East Policy at Brookings hosted the launch of a report titled "Islam as Statecraft: How governments use religion in foreign policy," authored by two senior . To keep the Arab Muslims from quarreling, the next caliph, Omar, launched the Muslim conquests: Syria was conquered around 636, Egypt 641, Mesopotamia and the Persian Empire, 650. The coming of Islam saw a general decline in the status of . Most Arab countries, for example, have embraced the concept of the sovereign nation-state and Western patterns of political administration: parliaments, political parties, and constitutions. Photo: A colonnade of lofty arches surrounds the courtyard at the Prophet's Mosque in Medina, after Mecca the second holiest city of Islam. Photo: The angular kufic script is here used to put a well known religious expression into the form of a mosque with four minarets. Scholars, for example, in collecting and reexamining the hadith, or "traditions" - the sayings and actions of the Prophet - compiled immense biographical detail about the Prophet and other information, historic and linguistic, about the Prophet's era. The Middle East would be a tremendous place to begin this process, but the fact is there are many situations across the globe . One was a system of banking and exchange so sophisticated that a letter of credit issued in Baghdad could be honored in Samarkand in Central Asia or Kairouan in North Africa. If you hold fast to this you will never go astray.". Photo: The diwani script (top) and the so called "royal" diwani (below) were developed by Ottoman calligraphers for use on state documents. The majority of Muslims support the elective principle which led to the choice of Abu Bakr as the first caliph. Abu Bakr took swift military action against the communities that wanted to break away. They affirm the Last Judgment, when God, the Judge, will weigh in the balance the faith and works of each man, rewarding the faithful and punishing the transgressor. Muslim Heritage - Al-Qayrawan, seat of Arab governors founded in 670, Muslim Heritage - Umayyad Coins (661-750CE). President Carter of the United States brought the leaders of Egypt and Israel together in the United States and himself traveled to the Middle East in an attempt to persuade at least these two countries to conclude a peace treaty, and in March 1979 Egypt and Israel signed a treaty to which the United States was also a signatory. The ancient systems of irrigation were destroyed and the devastation was so extensive that agricultural recovery, even in the twentieth century, is still incomplete. After sunset the pilgrims move to a place called Muzdalifah, where they gather stones for the "throwing of the pebbles" or "stoning of the pillars," and then pray and sleep. Al-Mamun died in 833, in the town of Tarsus, and was succeeded by his brother, al-Mu'tasim, under whose rule the symptoms of decline that had manifested themselves earlier grew steadily worse. Considered dispassionately, the venture was impossible. Photo: The basmalah is here written in ornamental "floriated" kufic (above) and in naskhi (below). The Quran of course is available in many languages, but these versions are regarded as interpretations rather than translations - partly because the Arabic language, extraordinarily concise and allusive, is impossible to translate in a mechanical, word-for-word way. In the countries that use the Arabic alphabet, on the other hand, calligraphy has continued to be used not only on important documents but for a variety of other artistic purposes as well. Their adoption in Europe began in the tenth century after an Arabic mathematical treatise was translated by a scholar in Spain and spread throughout the West. By the time 'Abd al-Rahman reached Spain, the Arabs from North Africa were already entrenched on the Iberian Peninsula and had begun to write one of the most glorious chapters in Islamic history. The exercise of self-control extends far beyond refraining from food and drink; to make one's fast acceptable to God, one must also refrain from cursing, lying, cheating, and abusing or harming others. Among many instruments that arrived in Europe through the Middle East are the lute and the rahab, an ancestor of the violin. This is one of the best video for a new Muslim as well as for non Muslims who are interested in Islam! Short-Term Effects. The introduction of numerous varieties of fruits and vegetables and other plants to the West via the Islamic empire was, however, largely the result of the vast expansion of trade during the Golden Age. When it was founded it had 25 doctors, including oculists, surgeons, and bonesetters. conquered the Middle East, then dispatched scholars and diplomats to study Islamic civilization, classifying it as something . The military conquest was inspired by religion, but it was also motivated by greed and politics. Originally the site of the Ka'bah, a shrine of ancient origins, Mecca had with the decline of southern Arabia (see Chapter l ) become an important center of sixth-century trade with such powers as the Sassanians, Byzantines, and Ethiopians. Consequently, the Holy Text could only be collected as a single corpus - "between the two covers" - after the death of Muhammad. Although the House of Wisdom originally concentrated on mathematics, it did not exclude other subjects. At the same time Muhammad won the allegiance of 'Amr ibn al-'As, the future conqueror of Egypt, and Khalid ibn al-Walid, the future "Sword of God," both of whom embraced Islam and joined Muhammad. Trade has played a role in the spread of Islam since the beginning of the religion. The hajj proper must be made between the eighth and thirteenth days of the 12th month - Dhu al-Hijjah - of the Muslim year, but in one sense it begins when a Muslim approaches Mecca, bathes, trims his nails and hair, discards jewelry and headgear, and puts on the ihram dress. Margari Hill, Stanford University January 2009 available in PDF format ( 1.14 MB ). During this period of his life Muhammad traveled widely. Descended from a tribal chief named Seljuk, whose homeland lay beyond the Oxus River near the Aral Sea, the Seljuks not only developed a highly effective fighting force but also, through their close contacts with Persian court life in Khorasan and Transoxania, attracted a body of able administrators. After the death of Muhammad in 632 CE, the young Muslim federation came under strain. That had a very active political component necessarily those of IslamiCity the majority of Muslims support the elective which... 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